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1 Inštitút pre výskum práce a rodiny Institute for Labour and Family Research Rodina a práca Empirické súvislosti migračných tokov kvalifikovanej pracovnej sily v prihraničnom regióne medzi východným Rakúskom a Slovenskom Empirical connections of the migration flows of qualified labour force in the cross border region between Austria and Slovakia Marc Bittner Michaela Hudler-Seitzberger Claudia Tschipan Rastislav Bednárik Zuzana Kostolná Daniela Kešelová 6/2009 Bratislava, november 2009

2 Rodina a práca R od Obsah čísla 6/2009 FAMO: základné informácie o projeke... 5 i n a From LAMO to FAMO. Investigations on the Regional Labour Market at the Border Zone of Austria and the Czech Republic, Hungary, and the Slovak Republic. Marc Bittner, Michaela Hudler-Seitzberger, Claudia Tschipan Paul Lazarsfeld-Gesellschaft für Sozialforschung (PLG), Wien Slovenská pracovná sila v prihraničnom regióne medzi východným Rakúskom a Slovenskom: príležitosti, bariery a ohrozenia Rastislav Bednárik, Zuzana Kostolná, Daniela Kešelová Inštitút pre výskum práce a rodiny, Bratislava a p rá Vydáva Inštitút pre výskum práce a rodiny Nepredajné Šéfredaktorka: doc. PhDr. Kvetoslava Repková, CSc. Technická spolupráca: Marta Červenková Návrh obálky: Bc. Peter Repka Technický redaktor: Bc. Peter Repka Rodina a práca c a Inštitút pre výskum práce a rodiny Župné námestie 5-6, Bratislava Prešlo jazykovou korektúrou ISSN: Reg. číslo: 3394/2005

3 Empirické súvislosti migračných tokov kvalifikovanej pracovnej sily v prihraničnom regióne medzi východným Rakúskom a Slovenskom Empirical connections of the migration flows of qualified labour force in the cross border region between Austria and Slovakia Marc Bittner Michaela Hudler-Seitzberger Claudia Tschipan Rastislav Bednárik Zuzana Kostolná Daniela Kešelová

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5 Anotácia Na tradíciu medzinárodnej spolupráce pri prezentácii výskumných výsledkov nadväzuje aktuálne číslo bulletinu pod názvom Empirické súvislosti migračných tokov kvalifikovanej pracovnej sily v prihraničnom regióne medzi východným Rakúskom a Slovenskom. Spoločné číslo Rakúskeho výskumného inštitútu Paul Lazarsfeld für Sozialforschung a Inštitútu pre výskum práce a rodiny vzniklo na základe spolupráce v rámci projektu FAMO Monitorovanie odborných pracovných síl pravidelný prieskum ponuky a dopytu po odborných pracovných silách v prihraničnom regióne medzi východným Rakúskom a Slovenskom Predkladané číslo bulletinu je venované výskumnej reflexii základných migračných tokov kvalifikovanej pracovnej sily s akcentom na špecifíká trhov práce v prihraničných regiónoch Slovenska (Bratislavský a Trnavský kraj) a Východného Rakúska. Na základe poznatkov z rozsiahlych reprezentatívnych empirických prieskumov domácností a zamestnávateľov, realizovaných súčasne v obidvoch krajinách na prelome rokov autori prvého príspevku upozorňujú na dôležité aspekty pracovnej migrácie po rozšírení Európy v roku 2004 a objasňujú metodologické prístupy v rámci realizovaných projektov LAMO a FAMO. Osobitnú pozornosť venujú výsledkom výskumu v oblasti dopytu a ponuky po kvalifikovanej pracovnej sile v regióne Viedeň Bratislava Trnava. Autori druhého príspevku sa zaoberajú problematikou migračného potenciálu slovenských občanov, ochotou dochádzať za prácou do Rakúska, analýzou kvalifikačných potrieb dopytu po práci a ponuky práce, rozsahom medzinárodných aktivít zamestnávateľov z prihraničného regiónu a postojmi k nelegálnemu zamestnávaniu. Kľúčové slová: migrácia, pracovná migrácia, prihraničný región, trh práce, kvalifikovaná pracovná sila, dopyt, ponuka, medzinárodné aktivity zamestnávateľov, nelegálna práca

6 Abstract The tradition of international cooperation in the presentation of research results is being continued in the present issue of the Bulletin under the title Empirical connections of the migration flows of qualified labour force in the cross border region between Austria and Slovakia. The common issue of both the Austrian Paul Lazarsfeld Gesellschaft fur Sozialforschung in Vienna and the Slovak Institut pre vyskum prace a rodiny in Bratislava arose based on the cooperation within the following FAMO project Monitoring of skilled labour force-periodic survey of supply and demand of skilled labour force in the cross border region between Eastern Austria and Slovakia (or Monitoring of skilled Workers-FAMO) The presented issue of the Bulletin is dedicated to the research reflections about basic migration flows of skilled labour force with a special emphasis on the specificity of labour market in cross border regions of Slovakia (Region of Bratislava and region of Trnava) and the eastern part of Austria. Based on knowledge from extensive representative empirical surveys of households and enterprises realized simultaneously in both countries during the same period of the authors of the first article emphasize (stress)some important aspects of work related migration after the enlargement of European Union in 2004 and clarify the research methods of the realized(executed) projects of LAMO and FAMO. Special attention is given to the results of supply and demand of qualified labour force in the region of Vienna-Bratislava-Trnava. The main focus of the authors of the second contribution is the place that Slovak citizens occupy on the labour market, their migration potential, their willingness to commute to work in Austria and the analysis of qualification needs of labour supply and demand, the extent of international activities of the cross border region employers and on their point of view regarding illegal employment. Key words: migration, qualified labour force, labour migration, cross border region, labour market, supply and demand, international activities employers, illegal employment

7 FAMO: základné informácie o projeke V rámci programu cezhraničnej spolupráce Slovenská republika Rakúsko na roky je realizovaný projekt Monitorovanie odborných pracovných síl (FAMO) - pravidelný prieskum ponuky a dopytu po odborných pracovných silách v prihraničnom regióne medzi východným Rakúskom a Slovenskom. 1 Tento projekt sa realizuje od roku 2008 až do roku 2012 pod vedením vedúceho partnera Paul Lazarsfeld-Gesellschaft für Sozialforschung (PLG) so sídlom vo Viedni. Inštitút pre výskum práce a rodiny (IVPR) so sídlom v Bratislave je v tomto projekte cezhraničným partnerom. Cieľom projektu FAMO je popri rozsiahlom znázornení hospodárskeho rozvoja v skúmanom regióne zmonitorovať dopyt a požiadavky na odborné pracovné sily na obidvoch stranách hranice, zhodnotiť záujem obyvateľov o mobilitu za prácou (ide o mobilitu cezhraničnú, ako aj mobilitu v rámci krajiny), analyzovať kvalifikačné potreby dopytu po práci a kvalifikačnú štruktúru ponuky práce v prihraničnom regióne. Súčasťou projektu je modul zameraný na problematiku ilegálneho zamestnávania. Výstupom projektu FAMO bude príprava relevantných podkladov na vypracovanie cielených opatrení so zámerom zabezpečenia harmonického rozvoja prihraničného regiónu Západné Slovensko (konkrétne regióny Bratislavského a Trnavského vyššieho územného celku) Východné Rakúsko (konkrétne regióny Wien, Nordburgenland, Weinviertel, Wiener Umland-Nordteil a Wiener Umland-Südteil). Užívateľmi, resp. cieľovými skupinami projektu sú na jednej strane 1 Projekt je podporovaný finančnými prostriedkami z Európskeho fondu regionálneho rozvoja v rámci programu Cezhraničná teritoriálna spolupráca Slovensko - Rakúsko a je kofinancovaný Ministerstvom výstavby a regionálneho rozvoja Slovenskej republiky 5

8 samotní pracovníci, na druhej strane sú to inštitúcie trhu práce aktívne v oblasti tvorby politík a ich implementácie. Na získanie potrebných údajov bola uplatnená koncepcia štúdie obcí, ktorá sa pri realizácii prieskumov zameriava na oblasti, ktoré vzhľadom k svojim regionálno ekonomickým a územným charakteristikám disponujú potenciálom pre cezhraničné zamestnávanie a migráciu. Súbor monitorovacích nástrojov použitých v projekte tvorili prieskumy v domácnostiach, u zamestnávateľských subjektov a interview s expertami Projekt bezprostredne nadväzuje na projekty LAMO I. a LAMO II. (projekty zamerané na monitorovanie zmien na trhu práce v súvislosti s rozširovaním Európskej únie), ktoré sa realizovali v rokoch , a súvisí s plánmi agendy CENTROPE zameranej na ekonomický rozvoj prihraničného regiónu a vzťah hlavných miest Viedeň Bratislava v nadväznosti na obdobné plány Slovenskej republiky (napr. Národný strategický plán Slovenskej republiky) či Rakúska (napr. Strategický plán Viedne). Výsledky projektu môžu byť využité ako podklad pre rozhodovacie subjekty pri argumentácii v oblasti tvorby opatrení na zaistenie harmonického rozvoja spoločného pracovného trhu. Ambíciou projektu je prispieť ku kohézii prihraničného regiónu medzi východným Rakúskom a Slovenskom. 6

9 From LAMO to FAMO. Investigations on the Regional Labour Market at the Border Zone of Austria and the Czech Republic, Hungary, and the Slovak Republic Marc Bittner, Michaela Hudler-Seitzberger, Claudia Tschipan Paul Lazarsfeld-Gesellschaft für Sozialforschung (PLG), Wien Introduction As the Paul Lazarsfeld Society for Social Research (PLG ), a nonprofit, non-university research institute, in the tradition of Prof. Paul F. Lazarsfeld 3 deals with the conception of the empiric-quantitative research of social and political phenomenons subjective opinions and attitudes are in the centre of the analytic framework of the PLG. Complementary secundary statistical material and literature studies are being used to be able to analyse the results of the primary data collections in a wider context. 2 In German: Paul Lazarsfeld Gesellschaft für Sozialforschung 3 Austian Sociologist ( ), amongst others Director of the Bureau of Applied Social Research 7

10 Besides the focus on the economic and social development of countries in central and east Europe as well as in south-east Europe the PLG since 2003 also deals with the analysis of changes on the labour market in the course of EU enlargement (see also Bittner/ Hudler-Seitzberger 2007b). Therefore the PLG developed a tool for monitoring these developments called Labour-Market Monitoring (LAMO) within the framework of a project 4 subsidised by funds from INTERREG III strand A of the municipality of Vienna and co-financed by the Austrian Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour. The scientific approach to Labour Market Monitoring of the PLG was based upon opinion surveys. As regards content Labour Market Monitoring specifically dealt with cross border labour migration and commuting in the border region of the West of Hungary, the South of the Czech Republic, the West of Slovak Republic and the East of Austria (see Graphic 1). The investigations of LAMO have been carried out twice (in winter 2004/05 and in winter 2006/07) on the Austrian side of the border to the Czech Republic, Slovak Republic and Hungary as well as on the particular other side of the border, because the assumption was that an exchange of labour force would take place. The results gave a comprehensive overview on the labour force supply as well as on the labour force demand and are being supplemented by qualitative expert opinions. 4 The complete title of the project is Labour Market Monitoring (LAMO) - Development, Application and Validation of a Monitoring Tool to Regularly Observe the Changes on the Labour Market in the Course of EU Enlargement 8

11 Graphic 1: The Monitoring Region of LAMO In 2008 the PLG (as the Lead Partner 5 ) initiated a follow-up project of LAMO called»monitoring of Skilled Workers (FAMO 6 )«using the 5 Partners: Austrian Institute of Economic Research (WIFO: Österreichisches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung) / Institute for Labour and Family Research (SSPR: Inštitút pre výskum práce a rodiny; Slovak Republic) 6 In German: Fachkräftemonitoring 9

12 same methodology as LAMO but with a special focus on the topic qualification (matching of supply and demand including formal skills as well as soft skills. The region of investigation is concentrating on the Viennese Region in the Austrian side of the border and on Western Slovak Republic (Region Bratislava and Trnava) on the Slovak side of the border. The border region of Hungary and the Czech Republic are not covered by FAMO. Graphic 2: The Monitoring Region of FAMO 10

13 The project FAMO (within the period ) is subsidised by EFRE-funds of the municipality of Vienna in the Programme Creating the future. Programme for Cross-Border-Cooperation Slovak Republic Austria and co-financed by the Austrian Federal Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Consumer Protection. Background and aims of LAMO and FAMO On May 1 st, 2004 three of the neigbouring countries of Austria - the Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovak Republic - became members of the European Union. The impact of this enlargement on the labour markets in each of these countries and especially in Austria has been the subject of numerous studies, which have resulted in just as many different estimates of the expected commuter and labour migration figures, depending on the methods used in these studies (see Demel/ Profazi 1998, Walterskirchen/ Dietz 1998, Gächter 2000, Huber 2001). All the studies agree, however, that no huge migration flows is to be expected in the course of EU-Enlargement 7, but that a solid information base on the movements on the labour market is necessary if negative developments are to be prevented. Because the commuter and migration potential cannot be accurately predicted, the only reliable source of data on labour market changes 7 Cross Border Commuting is expected to be the more important phenomenon 11

14 appeared to be a regular monitoring. Particularly important in this context is the fact that in the course of the EU-enlargement in the year 2004 many old EU-member states (also Austria) determined transition periods which restrict the possibilites for workers from the new member countries to take up employment. Therefore the PLG used national and international experience and previously successful tools and methods to develop a valid monitoring system to determine local willingness to commute or migrate in the Central European Region Wien - Brno - Bratislava - Györ - Sopron - Eisenstadt - Sankt Pölten. This research tool was designed to regularly observe labour market developments in all these border regions. The tool has been developed multi-nationally, with cross-border co-operation, in order to take the various cultural, political, economic, social and psychological aspects of each region into account. The results, combined with objective data and other labour market information, provide a solid basis to predict the developments on the labour market. The man aim of LAMO (continued by FAMO) was to collect and analyse subjective data about the willingness to work abroad and about the demand of labour force by enterprises. Another aim was to establish international co-operation in labour market and economic development among experts, institutions, communities and companies in the border areas, as they are the ones immediately impacted. This co-operation is essential in order to make the correct choice of regions to be surveyed as well as to develop the specific survey questionnaires (for communities and companies). The project intended to contribute to the development of the regional labour market and social system within the context of EU enlargement, and specifically to establish a monitoring network of co-operating labour market and so- 12

15 cial policy institutions plus regional social institutions to ensure the availability of reliable and valid data on labour market development for years to come. The results of Labour Market Monitoring are relevant for policy makers in order to predict labour market developments in the border regions, and they provided a basis for labour market and migration policy in the course of the transition period on the Austrian labour market (in Austria the transition period in spring 2006 has been extended until spring 2009 then another extension until 2011 was decided. Governement control of the economy in a liberalised labour market after the transition period is another important value of the LAMO-data. The data from the various surveys of the two waves of data collection of LAMO (in winter 2004/05 and in winter 2006/07) have been published in multi-lingual brochures (Bittner/ Hudler-Seitzberger 2005 and Bittner/ Hudler-Seitzberger 2007) and on the internet (multi-lingual website: A series of events presented the results to target groups (labour market experts, economists, educators, local politicians, etc.) and to other interested parties in the regions. The results of the project FAMO (data collection in winter 2008/2009) will also be published and presented in public. In the sense of a Monitoring the research tools of LAMO and FAMO are used regularly to be able to analyse changes and developments in the subjective opinions and attitudes of potential labour migrants and cross border commuters. The surveys provide reliable data about potential labour migration and commuting and the demand for workers, which are relevant to the economic and social development of the regions. It has to be observed, whether the potential of labour migrants rises or falls, whether the idea of a labour migration are becoming more concrete (point in time, target region, preparations, ) 13

16 and whether the demand for qualified personnel rises or falls. A positive economic development in the neighbouring countries of Austria with rising wages possibly could make an labour migration to Austria less attractive. Reliable data on the changes on the labour market enables political decision makers to react to certain developments in an appropriate way. Taking the transition period concerning the complete liberalisation of the Austrian labour market for workers from new EU-member states into account, the reaction of potential labour migrants in our neighbouring countries to the political decision to extend the transition period until 2009 can be analysed. Methodology of LAMO and FAMO Within the framework of LAMO in a first step the PLG carried out a desk research to review relevant national and international studies dealing with the estimation of potential labour migration flows. The methodological approaches as well as the main results of those studies have been documented and reviewed ( State of the Art-Reports, Bittner/ Hudler- Seitzberger 2004, Bittner/ Hudler-Seitzberger 2007). The most useful international sociological study for the project LAMO appeared to be the Mexican Migration Project by Douglas S. Massey (Massey/ Singer 1995, Massey/ Espinosa 1997, Singer/ Massey 1998) which since uses the concept of community studies 8 to analyse 8 Surveys are carried out in regions with certain local economic and structural features during the winter months to better cover respondents who are willing to migrate/commute 14

17 the labour migration potential at the U.S.-Mexican border and which was adapted by the PLG to analyse the border region in the Northeast of Austria. Other interesting approaches using the survey methodology to estimaste labour migraiton flows are the studies by Fassmann (Fassmann/ Hintermann 1997, Bastyr 2001, Vavreckova 2002 and 2003). On the basis of this review the monitoring tools have been developed. They include as already mentioned - qualitative guided expert interviewies, household surveys and enterprise surveys. The sampling procedures for the household and for the enterprise surveys rest upon a spacestructural and regional-economic analysis by the Austrian Institute for Spatial Planning (ÖIR 9 ). The selection of the samples is a very important factor within the LAMO- and FAMO-project(s) as only in those regions surveys are carried out, in which a labour migration potential is estimated due to spacestructural and regional-economic key data. The following section shortly describes the monitoring tools of LAMO and FAMO: Expert-interviews In cross border cooperation an interview guide for the expert talks has been developed, which was used to ask regional experts about their opinion about the situation and the developments on the labour market with special focus on cross-border labour migration. As experts regional labour market actors, local politicians and scientists have been interviewed. The interviewed experts also are part of the 9 in German: Österreichisches Institut für Raumplanung 15

18 research network of LAMO and FAMO and have been integrated in the phases of data collection, data distribution and data utilisation of the results of the project. Household surveys Residents (employable population) in border areas have been asked about their personal intentions with regard to labour migration and commuting). In the Czech Republic about persons have been interviewed within LAMO I and II, in Hungary about persons. In the Slovak Republic about persons have been interviewed within LAMO I and II and FAMO I. On the Austrian side of the border (Vienna, Lower Austria, Burgenland) within LAMO I 10 about persons have been interviewed, within FAMO I about persons have been surveyed in Vienna. The questionnaire of the household survey amongst others contains questions concerning: socio-demographic characteristics, qualifications, working status, economic situation, attitudes and values, occupational and spatial mobility, experiences with working abroad, willingness to work abroad (to migrate or commute), expectations, motives, preparations, target regions, time horizon etc. 10 Within the project LAMO II no household survey was carried out in Austria 16

19 Enterprise surveys In order to determine labour market developments in a monitoring system, enterprises on both sides of the borders also have been surveyed. The conception of combining a household survey on the one hand, which collects data concerning the willingness to work in the neighbouring country on the personal level with an enterprise survey on the other hand, which collects data about the demand for workers seemed to be essential to be able to contrast supply and demand in the area of labour migration to get a realistic picture of the phenomenon. In the Czech Republic about 200 companies have been interviewed within LAMO I and II, in Hungary about 100 companies, in the Slovak Republic about 130 companies. On the Austrian side of the border about 400 companies have been surveyed within LAMO I and II. Within FAMO I about companies have been interviewed on the Austrian side as well as on the Slovak side of the border. The questionnaire of the enterprise survey amongst others contains questions concerning: structure of the enterprise, (development in the) number of employees, staffing needs (qualifications, type of employment), willingness to employ workers from abroad, types of recruitment, criteria for the choice of location for a place of business, etc. 17

20 Personal dialogues Within the project FAMO also a new methodological element is being used: Personnel dialogues : This method is based upon analysing the company surveys regarding certain industries with a high demand of skilled workers. Within these industries personal 70 dialogues (qualitative interviews, 35 in Vienna, 35 in the Slovak Republic) are being carried out to learn more about the qualification needs of the companies and the desired abilities of demanded workers. Based upon the results of the qualitative interviews qualification options for these industries are to be developed and formulated in a dialogue with the companies themselves. For results of the projects LAMO I and II see the multilingual projectwebsite The results of FAMO I will be published in a bilingual brochure in spring 2010 as well as on the project website In the following this article presents the project results of FAMO I, particularly those concerning qualification demand and qualification of labour force. The findings of the Viennese enterprise and household surveys are compared to those of West Slovakia (Regions Bratislava and Trnava). The first part describes the enterprise point of view with regard to their qualification demands. Thereafter the perspective of the persons interviewed in the context of the household survey is presented in the second part, in order to demonstrate the qualification supply on the part of the labour force potential in the investigated region. 18

21 Enterprise qualification demand and qualification measures First, the following representation of results considers general results regarding enterprise qualification demand and qualification measures. Afterwards the question is analysed as to which extent the surveyed enterprises would be prepared to meet their qualification demands by workers coming from neighbouring countries (Austria, Slovakia respectively). General results Future labour force demand The enterprises were asked to estimate the development of the labour force demand within the next two years according to the level of education. 11 Enterprises of both countries are expecting a future increase 12 of the labour force demand primarily for employed university graduates (this is stated by 10% of the Viennese enterprises and by 13% of the Slovakian enterprises), for employees who have obtained a general qualification for university entrance (Vienna: 11%, Slovakia 10%) and, particularly in Slovakia for skilled workers (Vienna 8%, Slovakia: 14%). 11 Sample size in Austria (Vienna): N=1.501; Sample size in West Slovakia (regions Bratislava and Trnava): N= categories substantial increase plus increase 19

22 However, most enterprises generally assume the labour force demand for all levels of education to remain constant, this more frequently being the opinion of Austrian enterprises than that of Slovakian enterprises. According to the surveyed enterprises a decrease 13 in demand for workers is expected in the area of semi- and unskilled workers (in Vienna by 10% of enterprises, in Slovakia by 12%), as well as apprentices (8% in Vienna, 11% in Slovakia). The comparison of both regions shows that Slovakian enterprises more often expect a reduction of the labour force demand at all educational levels than the Austrian enterprises do. Furthermore, the Slovakian enterprises were generally often unable to estimate the development of the labour force demand (high rates of don t know/no answer were stated). Regarding the future development of their own numbers of employees, enterprises in both countries assume the number of full-time employees to increase (in Vienna 17%, in Slovakia 15% 14 ). While Viennese enterprises expect the proportion of part-time employees to increase (9%), Slovak enterprises expect it to decrease rather than increase (increase 3%, decrease 9%). The number of persons employed by contracts for work and labour/freelance service contracts in Viennese enterprises is also more likely to decline than incline (4% increase, 8% decrease); in Slovakia however, an increase is becoming apparent (8%), though a similar percentage of enterprises estimates this type of employment to decrease in future. 13 categories decrease plus substantially decrease 14 categories substantially increase and increase combined (applies for the whole section) 20

23 Current demand of labour force and Soft Skills Currently the majority of enterprises, both in Vienna and Slovakia are not seeking any personnel (in Vienna 84%, in Slovakia 89%). Consequently the demand for employees is slightly higher in Viennese enterprises (14%) than in Slovak enterprises (11%). In Vienna enterprises are most commonly searching for personnel in the sectors accommodation and food service activities (19%), human health and social work activities (16%) and financial and insurance activities (15%); and Slovakian enterprises in the sectors human health and social work activities (20%), accommodation and food service activities (16%) and construction (12%). For companies that are seeking personnel, and in particular unskilled workers, diligence (stated by 17% of the Viennese enterprises), dependability (16%), flexibility (15%), ability to work under pressure (15%), learning ability and willingness to perform (14%) are most important. Seeing that half of the Slovakian companies seeking unskilled workers are looking for qualifications other than those listed in the survey, key qualifications seem to be sparsely defined in the case of unskilled workers. Those companies who have stated important key competences are looking for unskilled workers who are above all dependable (stated by 15% of the enterprises), conscientious (14%), diligent (14%), flexible (12%) and show discipline as well as a sense of duty (8%). Viennese enterprises looking for skilled workers, expect employees to be like unskilled workers - diligent (49% of Viennese enterprises), dependable (46%), be able to work under pressure (45%) and moreover to also be disciplined and dutiful (45%) as well as flexible (45%). 21

24 Slovakian enterprises specify the most important qualities of skilled workers to be conscientiousness and dependability (16% respectively), flexibility (15%), personal responsibility (12%), as well as customer care and service (11%). Generally soft skills seem to be the most significant key qualifications to the surveyed enterprises, which applies to both unskilled and skilled workers. Meeting work-force demands through appropriately qualified labour Viennese enterprises currently seeking personnel are having more difficulty filling vacant positions adequately than Slovak enterprises. Thus 34% of the Viennese enterprises declared it to be very difficult to find adequate persons for vacant positions, 36% are finding this fairly difficult. On the contrary, in Slovakia these rates amount to 19% (very difficult) and 41% (fairly difficult). The most common cause for this (in both countries) is a shortage of accordingly qualified labour resources: 64% of Viennese enterprises and 63% of Slovakian enterprises declared that filling vacant positions has proven to be difficult because of the lack of available labour resources with adequate education. This reason is stated by large enterprises more frequently than by small enterprises both in Vienna (77% of large enterprises) and Slovakia (89% of large enterprises). A possible solution to counteract the shortage of qualified labour resources would be to support qualification measures. In the context of the question asking companies if they had supported qualification measures 22

25 within the last 12 months, only 37% of those Viennese enterprises, that said they were having difficulties finding adequately qualified personnel supported training measures for unskilled workers. The situation of skilled workers reveals a different picture: qualification measures for skilled workers are supported by 80% of those companies stating a shortage of appropriately educated labour force as the reason for difficult recruitment. However, those enterprises not stating this reason also support qualification measures for skilled workers (68%). This tendency can also be observed in Slovakia: 75% of the companies declaring the lack of appropriately educated labour force as the reason for difficult recruitment support qualification measures. Qualification measures for employees Regarding the question about the enterprises efforts in supporting qualification measures for further vocational training during the last 12 months, it seems that qualification measures for unskilled and semi-skilled workers are less important. Around two thirds of the Viennese enterprises have not supported any qualification measures for unskilled and semi-skilled workers. This rate is even slightly higher in Slovakia (stated by 71%). The Viennese companies more commonly support in-house training (13%), as well as a combination of in-house and external training (11%), however less frequently purely external training (3%). The latter proportion is slightly higher in Slovakia (7%). In-house training as well as a combination of in-house and external measures is supported by 10% of Slovakian enterprises respectively. The picture is somewhat different in the case of skilled workers. Twice 23

26 as many Viennese and Slovakian enterprises invest in qualification measures for skilled workers than in qualification training for unskilled workers. Thus only 37% of Viennese enterprises state that they do not support any qualification measures at all, this rate amounts to 38% in Slovakia. While purely in-house measures are supported in Austria and Slovakia likewise by around the same proportion of enterprises (stated by 17% and 19% respectively), purely external training is supported more often in Slovakia (19%) than it is in Austria (11%). On the contrary Viennese companies more frequently promote a combination of in-house and external measures (33%) than the Slovakian companies. The enterprises currently seeking personnel and also those enterprises that have mentioned a shortage of appropriately qualified labour to fill vacant positions are at the same time those enterprises that support qualification measures more frequently for both unskilled and skilled workers. It can therefore be said, that enterprises are responsive to a corresponding labour force demand by supporting qualification measures. Furthermore, the support of qualification measures is more common in enterprises that are currently employing, or would employ persons from the new EUmember states in comparison to those that do not or would not. As is the case in Vienna, Slovakian enterprises supporting qualification training for both unskilled and skilled workers are more frequently those currently looking for labour force. Unlike the Viennese enterprises however, the Slovakian enterprises do not promote qualification measures for unskilled workers more often if it is their opinion that there is a shortage of adequately qualified labour force to fill vacant positions (i.e.: if they are experiencing difficulties in filling vacant positions), though this is the case for skilled workers. 24

27 Strategies for shortage of labour 64% of the surveyed Viennese and Slovakian enterprises (respectively) reported that they could recruit sufficient labour force. The remaining 36% of enterprises stating problems with the recruitment of labour force were asked about their strategies to overcome these difficulties. The strategy most frequently reported by Viennese enterprises is active domestic recruiting (49% of enterprises). Another common strategy is self-education (29%). Particularly enterprises in the sectors manufacturing (40%) and information and communication (46%) are willing to self-educate more than average. 19% of Viennese enterprises would employ temporary staff (enterprises operating in particular sectors would even do this above average: 63% in the construction sector and 30% in the wholesale and retail trade; repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles sector). The strategies active recruitment abroad as well as restructuring of existing jobs are stated by 15% of the enterprises respectively. Providing more flexible working hours is a possibility for 10% of the enterprises, paying higher salaries for 9%. Training is an option for only 6%, outsourcing company performance for 5% and partial relocation abroad for 4% of the surveyed Viennese enterprises. The Slovakian enterprises also state active domestic recruitment most commonly (in addition, the rate of 79% is clearly above the rate of the Viennese sample). Other strategies lie far behind: the second most common strategy is training (9%). 7% consider providing more flexible working hours an option and 6% paying higher salaries. Self-education is seen as a possibility only for 4% of the Slovakian enterprises 25

28 (this represents a considerable difference to Vienna). Active recruitment abroad as well as restructuring existing jobs is stated by 3% respectively. Employing temporary staff is a strategy that only 2% of Slovakian enterprises would fall back on. Outsourcing company performance and partial relocation abroad were rarely mentioned (1% respectively). Meeting qualification demands by recruiting employees from Austria and/or from the new EU-member states A further possibility to meet qualification demands would be the employment of foreign labour. Just under two thirds of the Austrian enterprises that are currently looking for personnel would also consider recruiting employees from the new EU-member states 15. In Slovakia 39% of enterprises would also hire employees from Austria, though Slovakian companies would employ Czechs (stated by 42% of enterprises) and employees from other old EU-member states (41%) more frequently than Austrians. 27% of the Austrian enterprises agree that their qualification is an advantage when recruiting employees from the new EU-member states; however 14% also consider this to be a drawback. On the contrary, Slovakian enterprises assess the qualification of Austrians slightly more positively: 30% consider the qualification of Austrians as a reason for 15 Slovakia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Bulgaria, Romania. 26

29 employing them and it is the opinion of only 6% of enterprises that this is a reason not to recruit Austrians. 43% of the Viennese enterprises that would recruit citizens of the new EU-member states for vacant positions think that their qualification is a reason for employing them, 7% think that their qualification is a reason against their recruitment. In Slovakian enterprises their qualification seems to be a criterion for recruiting employees from their neighbouring country. Over two thirds of the enterprises that would fill vacant positions with employees from Austria think that their qualification is an advantage; only 3% see this as a reason for not employing them. Only few enterprises in both countries would substitute domestic labour for foreign labour from the new EU-member states or from Austria (stated by 18% of Austrian enterprises, in Slovakia by 8%). In Austria this would most likely apply to skilled workers (8%) and unskilled workers (7%), and least to apprentices (2%) and employed university graduates (4%). In Slovakia domestic labour would most likely be substituted for Austrian labour in the case of skilled workers (7%) and employed university graduates (5%) and least in the case of apprentices (1%) and employees without a general qualification for university entrance (2%). The next section of this article deals with the qualification of the labour force. The data analysed come from the household surveys of the project FAMO I in Vienna and in the Western part of the Slovak Republic. 16 In the centre of this section is the analysis of the qualification of the 16 Total sample in Austria (Vienna): N= Partial Sample of the Labour Migration Potential without restrictions to target countries: N=580) Total sample in the Slovak Republic (Regions Bratislava and Trnava): N= Partial Sample of the Labour Migration Potential without restrictions to target countries: N=195; Partial Sample of the Labour Migration Potential with the target country Austria : N=88. 27

30 labour force in Austria (Vienna) and in the Slovak Republic (Bratislava, Trnava) willing to migrate for working purpose. Education, occupation and skills First the formal qualification of the respondents is described: Among the Viennese respondents, who can imagine to work abroad, a high percentage has a general qualification for university entrance (27%). 21% served their apprenticeship, 19% only have a graduation of primary school. 16% have an academic degree which is above average of the total sample. In general among persons, who are willing to work abroad, a higher proportion of individuals with a higher education and a lower proportion of individuals with a lower qualification can be found. Among the Slovak respondents, who can imagine to work abroad (independent from the desired target country), also a high percentage of persons with a general qualification for university entrance can be stated (41%). 25% served their apprenticeship, 19% only have a graduation of primary school, 9% have an academic degree. Very similar to the group of potential labour migrants without a restriction to target countries is the one of persons willing to work in Austria. Concerning the occupation the Viennese group of potential labour migrants consists to the high percentage of 25% of academics, to 20% of clerks and to 19% of skilled workers. Due to these findings relatively many well educated Viennese respondents would like to work abroad opposite to insufficiently qualified persons. 28

31 In the Slovak Republic unskilled workers make up to 17% of the potential labour migrants with Austria as the target country. 20% of the mobile respondents are educated for the service sector, 18% for qualified work in the technical, financial or social sector or in the security sector. The respondents were also asked about their skills in certain areas. It turns out that the Viennese respondents have - in comparison to the sample in the Slovak Republic - in all areas have more and better skills with the exception of soft skills in this area hardly any difference could be found. 79% of the Viennese sample have soft skills, 68% have skills in computer literacy and office communication, 56% have skills in distribution and sale, 55% have interdisciplinary qualifications. Among the soft skills the most common ones are dependability and personal responsibility ; in the group of persons willing to work abroad also the soft skills leadership, capacity for teamwork and being keen on experiment were stated above average. 82% of the Slovak respondents have soft skills, 29% have skills in computer literacy and office communication and 26% skills in distribution and sale. Like in the Viennese sample the most frequent characteristic of soft skills is dependability, followed by diligence. Regarding the potential labour migrants discipline/sense of duty is the second most stated characteristic (in the case of the labour migrants headed for Austria even the most frequent one). Among the interdisciplinary qualifications the knowledge of foreign languages is most prominent. In general though soft skills are less frequent than on average of the total sample. 29

32 Occupational status The occupational status of the potential Viennese labour migrants very often is skilled employees/specialists (29%) and executive employee (25%), which means that in Vienna most of all highly qualified workers can imagine to work abroad. In the group of potential Slovak labour migrants with the target country Austria the percentage of skilled workers with 36% is very high compared to the general labour migration potential. Areas of work In which areas of work can the respondents willing to work abroad be found? Hardly any of the Viennese respondents willing to work abroad are currently working in the public administration. Major parts of this group work in the areas of Construction, Accommodation and Food Service Activities and Service Activities. Minor parts are active in the areas Information and Communication, Human Health and Social Work Activities. In the Slovak sample of potential labour migrants in general as well as in the group with the target country Austria a very high proportion of persons working in the areas of Construction and Accommodation and Food Service Activities can be found (up to 15%). Primarily persons working in these areas are most likely to go abroad (to Austria) for working purpose. Whereas it can be stated for the Viennese sample that a willingness to work abroad is rather independent of the current area of work, in the 30

33 Slovak sample the readiness to work abroad is much higher when people work in the areas Construction and Accommodation and Food Service Activities. Potential Commuters and migrants and their qualifications Vienna Looking at the potential Viennese labour migrants subdivided into the different forms of labour migration, it appears that of the potential daily commuters 33% only have finished primary school. Also unskilled workers are overrepresented in this category of migration whereas within the groups of weekly commuters and permanent migrants the percentage of high qualified persons is above average. Analysing the last or current occupation it becomes clear that the potential labour migrants can be described as rather qualified workers, because the areas skilled worker, skilled employee and executive employee prevail in all forms of potential labour migration. For skilled workers as well as for unskilled workers a permanent labour migration is mainly considered (in each case 60% of the respondents give this answer). Concerning unskilled workers daily commuting is of second most importance, followed by weekly and monthly commuting. Skilled workers prefer - besides the permanent labour migration - weekly and monthly commuting; daily commuting is least interesting. Potential daily commuters from Vienna most frequently work in the areas Human Health and Social Work Activities (24%), Accommodation and Food Service Activities and certain Service Activities (each 19%). The weekly commuters mainly work in the areas Information and 31

34 Communication (23%), followed by Construction (15%) and Manufacturing (12%). Potential permanent labour migrants can be found in the areas Service Activities and Information and Communication (each 11%) most frequently. Slovak Republic Regarding the potential Slovak labour migrants subdivided into the different forms of labour migration, it becomes clear that of the potential monthly commuters 38% only have finished primary school whereas daily commuters have a rather high educational level (apprenticeship, general qualification for university entrance, university degree). Of the potential weekly migrants in the Slovak Republic 48% are skilled workers, in the group of monthly migrants the percentage amounts to 38% (although in this group the proportion of unskilled workers with 25% is also quite high). About 25% of the daily commuters are skilled workers, another 25% are skilled employees ). The distribution of the working status within the group of potential permanent labour migrants is rather heterogeneous. For unskilled workers a monthly commuting is mainly considered (40% of the respondents give this answer), followed by weekly commuting (33%) and daily commuting and a permanent labour migration (each 13%). 40% of the skilled workers can imagine a weekly commuting, whereas the other three migration forms amount to a proportion of 20% each. Potential daily commuters from the Western Slovak Republic most frequently work in the areas Manufacturing (21%) and Accommodation and Food Service Activities (18%). 32

35 Regarding weekly commuters and potential permanent migrants the areas Construction (20%), Service Activities (17%) and Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing (14%) are most prominent. Monthly commuters most frequently work in the areas Construction (21%) and Manufacturing (18%). In the group of potential permanent workers the areas Accommodation and Food Service Activities (16%) and Construction (14%) were named most frequently. Qualification measures About half of the Viennese respondents have not utilized qualification measures within the last 12 months, 26% have utilized in-house trainings, 18% privately organised and paid measures and 15% external qualification measures paid by the employer. Among the group of potential labour migrants the proportions are generally higher (with the exception of external measures) meaning that the readiness for the upgrading of qualifications is stronger among mobile workers. Of the potential labour migrants 90% also are willing to utilize long term qualification measures in comparison to this only 72% of the total sample gave this answer. In general among the respondents in the Slovak republic a lower readiness to utilize qualification measures can be stated in comparison to the Viennese data. Two thirds of the Slovak sample have not utilized qualification measures within the last 12 months, 18% have utilized in house trainings, 14% external qualification measures paid by the employer and only 4% have utilized privately organised and paid measures (within the group of potential labour migrants this proportion with 8% is twice as 33

36 high). Of the potential labour migrants with the target country Austria 23% have utilized in-house trainings. Of the potential Slovak labour migrants 65% also are willing to utilize long term qualification measures in comparison to this only 55% of the total sample gave this answer (compared to the Viennese sample the percentages are clearly lower though). Potential labour migrants and adequate working places abroad The potential labour migrants have also been asked what kind of work they would accept abroad: In Vienna most of the respondents would accept a work which is consistent with their qualifications (95%). Furthermore 28% would accept a work above their qualification level, 14% a work under their qualification level. 17 A de-qualification would be most likely accepted by younger person with rather high qualifications. In the Slovak Republic more flexibility towards a de-qualification can be stated: Even though the major part of the respondents (85%) would accept a work which is consistent with their qualifications but 31% would also accept a work under their qualification level, relatively independent from the objective level of education. Of the potential Slovak labour migrants with the target country Austria 91% would accept a work which is consistent with their qualifications, 27% would not refuse a work under their qualification level. 17 Multiple Choice was possible 34